WASHINGTON - Three months after two Russian nuclear-capable Tu-160 bombers, a heavy-lift An-124 Ruslan cargo plane and an Il-62 passenger plane landed at Maiquetia airport outside Caracas, Venezuela, two more Russian air force planes landed in Venezuela’s main airport last weekend accompanied by Chief of Staff of Russian Ground Forces Vasily Tonkoshkurov, a deployment of 100 troops and 35 tonnes of material, amid US economic sanctions and the threatened application of the Monroe Doctrine, fueling reaction from the US State Department.

These events follow recent joint air force exercises held with Russian allies and, according to Venezuelan Defence Minister Vladimir Padrino Lopez, was in preparation “to defend Venezuela to the last inch when necessary. This we are going to do with our friends, because we have friends in the world who defend respectful, balanced relations.”

US President Donald Trump reiterated that “all options” are being considered in relation to the situation in Venezuela, alluding to oil sanctions, visa cancellations for dozens of Maduro’s associates, high-ranking military members, and the possibility of military action.

“The United States condemns Russia’s deployment of military aircraft and personnel to Caracas, which is another contradiction of both Nicolas Maduro’s and Russia’s calls for non-intervention in Venezuela and is a reckless escalation of the situation,” a State Department spokesman said.

US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo told his Russian counterpart Sergei Lavrov in a phone call on Monday that “the United States and regional countries will not stand idly by as Russia exacerbates tensions in Venezuela”, urging Moscow to “cease its unconstructive behaviour” in Venezuela.

The Organization of American States (OAS) said the presence of Russian military personnel and transport constitutes “a harmful act to Venezuelan sovereignty,” adding that “The foreign military personnel are an instrument of repressive intimidation in the context of a democratic transition led by the interim President Juan Guaidó.”

“The General Secretariat of the Organization of American States (OAS) rejects the recent Russian military incursion into Venezuelan territory, which was not authorized by the National Assembly, as required by the Venezuelan Constitution, and which was done in support of a government that has been declared illegitimate.

“It is unacceptable that a foreign government engages in military cooperation programs with a usurping regime that has been declared illegitimate by resolutions and Inter-American law, which also threatens hemispheric peace and security.”

The US State Department has openly backed opposition leader Juan Guaido as Venezuela’s interim president and taken steps to facilitate the hand over of economic control, en route to regime change.

Last Friday, a select group of four Caribbean Community (CARICOM) leaders met with Trump, as an opportunity to thank these countries for their support for peace and democracy in Venezuela.

On Saturday, CARICOM foreign affairs ministers met by videoconference with Guaido, “to provide good offices in facilitating a peaceful resolution to the Venezuela crisis through a meaningful internal process.”

“CARICOM Foreign Ministers acknowledged the meeting as a significant initial step in a series of potential engagements that should unfold by agreed mechanisms, within the framework of the Constitution of Venezuela and the rule of law. The meeting provided a greater understanding of Mr Guaido’s views and perspectives on how to move forward in the search for peaceful solutions, as well as his willingness to take part in meaningful discussions. The participants accepted the benefit of further engagement,” the statement added.

Amid increased isolation, Moscow has expanded co-operation with Caracas, increasing arms sales and extending credit, military co-operation and a strategy that may interfere with US plans to intervene in Venezuela on Guaido’s behalf, evoking the Russian military playbook during the Cuban missile crisis of the 1960s, and more recently in Syria and Ukraine.

Maduro called Russian cooperation a sign of strengthening relations; however, Washington criticized such manoeuvres as Russian encroachment in the region and accused Russia of “reckless escalation” of the situation in Venezuela by deploying military planes and personnel to the crisis-stricken South American nation.

Russia is a major political ally of Venezuela and previously cautioned the United States and neighbours against a military intervention in Venezuela, even amid an economic meltdown and political crisis that has left Venezuela struggling to pay billions of dollars owed to Russia, China and multinational corporations.

Russian Defense Minister Sergei Shoigu, meeting with his Venezuelan counterpart, Padrino Lopez, said that Russia would continue to send its military aircraft and warships to visit Venezuela as part of bilateral military cooperation.

US National Security Adviser John Bolton on March 23, declared via Twitter: “To those who are helping send the Venezuelan people’s wealth out of the country to benefit Maduro and his cronies, you are on notice today that the United States is watching.”

Moscow has limited options to challenge US policy goals in the region but is not likely to surrender willingly recent geopolitical advances in Latin America and the Caribbean.